Inquiry-based Learning Inquiry-based learning (IBL) is a pedagogy in which students take an active role in their own learning. Inquiry revolves around student questioning, research and conclusion formation. The origins of inquiry-based learning reach back as far as Socrates. IBL has its basis in Constructivism leading from the research of John Dewey, Jerome Bruner, and Lev Vygotsky and is grounded in the work of Piaget. In the 1960s, J. Richard Suchman at the University of Illinois in Champaign-Urbana did very extensive research around inquiry-based learning and is often referred to as the grandfather of the inquiry-based approach.
Pedaste, M., Mäeots, M., Siiman, L. A., De Jong, T., Van Riesen, S. A., Kamp, E. T., ... & Tsourlidaki, E. (2015). Phases of inquiry-based learning: Definitions and the inquiry cycle. Educational Research Review,14, 47-61. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1747938X15000068
Cognitive Level of Questioning Classroom questioning as a means of promoting student understanding dates back to the days of Socrates. The level of questions asked in classrooms and the impact it has for students is a topic that has been extensively researched. In these studies, researchers compare the effects of teachers and students using lower-cognitive questions to using higher-cognitive questions. Lower-cognitive questions ask students to recall information. They are often referred to as fact-based, closed, direct, recall or knowledge questions. Higher-cognitive questions are defined as those that require students to manipulate information to create an answer or to support an answer with logic. These questions are often referred to as open-ended, interpretive, evaluative, inquiry, inferential and synthesis questions. In general, these studies have found:
In the average classroom, 60% of questions asked are lower-cognitive questions, 20% are higher-cognitive questions and 20% are procedural
The grade level of students should be taken into account when deciding on the types of questions that will best promote student achievement.
In elementary classrooms, lower-cognitive questions are more effective than higher questions for learning content knowledge.
In secondary classrooms, a combination of lower and higher questions is most effective.
Increasing the incidence of higher-cognitive questions beyond the 20% level can significantly increase gains for secondary students.
The frequency of questions is directly related to achievement.
Simply asking higher-level questions does not lead to students creating higher-level responses. Students must be taught to draw inferences and support answers with data. However, for older students, increasing the incidence of higher-cognitive questions above 50% can lead to increases in:
on-task behavior
length of responses
volunteer contributions
number of student-student interactions
use of complete sentences
speculative thinking
posing of relevant questions
Wait Time The amount of time a teacher waits after posing a question is referred to as "wait time 1." The amount of time after the student stops responding and the teacher talks is "wait time 2." In regards to both types of wait time, the following have been found to be true:
The average for wait time 1 is 1 second.
Students seen as lower learners are given less wait time than those students teachers perceive as more capable.
For lower-cognitive questions, a wait time of 3 seconds is best correlated to higher achievement.
For higher-cognitive questions, the longer a teacher waits, the better students perform.
Wait times beyond 3 seconds for higher-cognitive questions results in improved student achievement and retention, improved levels of cognitive responses given by students, improved length of student responses and many other positive outcomes.
Increases in both the cognitive level of questions and the amount of wait time lead to enhanced student outcomes.